More 1930 Slovakia Census, An Index for Two Hungarian Villages

As mentioned at the beginning of the previous post, I've been reviewing the 1930 census sheets from my grandfather's home village of Nagy Szelmenc and the adjacent village Kis Szelmenc (Czech/Slovak Veľké and Malé Slemence). I've now completed an index of selected information from those census sheets. More about that farther down in this post. But first, in the next few paragraphs, I'd like to restate a few main points from that previous post, maybe more clearly this time.

In that previous post the main main point is the embedded image, which is a map from a 1921 history of Czechoslovakia. The map displays the eastern half of the Czechoslovakia that existed before World War II. The image title states, in Czech/Slovak, that the map is of Slovakia (Slovensko) and of Subcarpathian Rus' (Podkarpatská Rus). A solid bold line encompasses the two areas; together they were the eastern part of pre-WWII Czechoslovakia. A dashed bold line divides the two areas. (The breaks are very short; takes awhile to recognize it as a dashed line.) The figure, from wikimedia commons, is repeated below.

On the map the county of Užhorod is labeled in all caps. A much smaller label, in upper and lower case, marks the city of Užhorod. The dashed line follows a tight nearly three-quarter circle around the city. The western border of today's Transcarpathia lies a few to several miles west of this 1921 wavy dashed line. Transcarpathia extends slightly farther west than the interwar Podkarpatská Rus; they are not the same thing. Equivalently, the Slovakia part of pre-WWII Czechoslovakia extended several miles farther east than today's Slovakia. About this interwar dividing line—when was it first established as the western boundary of an intended semi-autonomous Ruthenian region, which country did that, and what were they thinking, why the waviness? That is a story for another time.

The final main point is that before WWII Czechoslovakia conducted two censuses of the country, one in 1921 and the second in 1930. For each of the two areas on this map, the process of restoring, digitizing and making the census images available online has so far been conducted for only one of the census years. For Podkarpatská Rus it is the 1921 census that is available online; the 1930 census is not available. Conversely for pre-WWII Slovakia it is the 1930 census that is available online; 1921 is not available.

Now back to my index of the two Szelemenc/Slemence villages in 1930. I've placed the index on google drive in three formats: (1) the Numbers file from my Mac laptop; (2) an xlsx file exported from Numbers; and (3) a CSV file exported from Numbers. Although the columns of the index are mostly self-explanatory, some additional explanation may help. Along with the explanations will be hints and lessons learned from working with this 1930 Slovakia census.

In the first column, Sheet, the leading number 317 was assigned by the archives to the box in which those sheets had been stored. The number after the slash was assigned to that sheet when the restoration process began. A small, white, scanable and human-readable label was attached near the top right corner of each sheet, and is visible in the online images. These box/sheet numbers are a modern creation, unknown in 1930. The box/sheet number can be used in the search field at the Slovakiana site. To aid the search results, occasionally it may be necessary to add a comma, a space and the first letter of the village's Slovak name (in this case M or V) in the search field. For example "317/92, V", without the quotes. The front of a sheet holds information for up to nine persons; if all nine rows are filled, click the right arrow to check if there are more persons on the back of the sheet. The House Number is as recorded by the enumerator. I don't know if these numbers were pre-assigned on a map, or if the enumerator simply entered a number in order of visitation. Kis Szelmenc (Malé Slemence) had its own set of house numbers, 1-59, which appear in reverse numerical order when viewed by Sheet order 317/1-59. Nagy Szelmenc (Veľké Slemence) was a bigger village, spanning sheets 317/60-248. Nagy Sz. has two sets of house numbers 1 through 28. The second set 1-28 was recorded for the Roma (gypsy, Hungarian cigány) neighborhood(s). What I call Head is the person on the first line of the census sheet, even though sometimes the situation was more complicated. The religion columns will be discussed in later paragraphs. Online the Slovakiana site also has summary sheets from 1930. The numbers in the last column of my index indicate that the summary sheets for this area had been stored in box 1201. (Subtotal summaries for other villages in the area include: Palad' 1201/28-29, Ptruska 1201/32-33, Ruská 1201/34-36, Vajany 1201/41-42, etc.) The information on these summary sheets is roughly the second, third, fourth, sixth and seventh columns of my index. The summary sheets also contain hand calculations of subtotals and grand totals. It appears that these summary sheets must have been folded into four-page booklets. When unfolded, the first and last pages appear on the first scanned page; click the right arrow to view the inside pages. The population total in 1930 for Malé Slemence was 303 and for Veľké Slemence it was 892. My great-grandfather is on sheet 317/61.

The 1930 Czechoslovakia census forms included columns for nationality and for religious affiliation. The vast majority of individuals in the Szelmenc'es were recorded as Hungarian. I've noted the rare instances when someone was recorded as Slovak or Czechoslovak. I've also noted when the nationality was recorded as cigány. There are two clusters of these, sheets 317/151-165 and then sheets 317/184-196. Everyone in these clusters was recorded as cigány. Conversely, no one outside of these clusters was recorded as cigány. For all those with Jewish religious affiliation, recorded either with the older Hungarian term izraelita by enumerator II or with the term zsidó by enumerator I, their nationality was recorded as zsidó (thus that entry in the notes column would be redundant). I suspect that many of the Roma and Jews would have thought of their nationality foremost as Hungarian, having ancestors who lived for centuries in the Hungarian part of Austria/Austria-Hungary, but had no choice how they were recorded.

Long before the 1930 census became available, I perused the information in the 1877 Dvorszák Gazetter, images available online from the University of Pécs. See this 2012 blog post, Boundaries of some Greek-Catholic Parishes in Old Hungary as well as my grandfather's wikitree page. For each village the 1877 Gazeteer provides population totals broken down by religious affiliation. Here are the 1877 numbers for Nagy Szelmenc (p. 738): Greek Catholic 314; Roman Catholic 175; Reformed 200; Jewish 69. Adding, the total population in 1877 was 758, slightly less than 1930's 892. The breakdown in 1930, from my index: Greek Catholic 385; Roman Catholic 268; Reformed 208; Jewish 30; Unstated 1. It's interesting to notice that in 1930 nearly 100 households subscribed to multiple Christian denominations. (For example, if the 1920 US census had recorded religious affiliation by baptism, my Dad's childhood family would have been 4 GC, 1 RC.)

I often explain to people that Toth is a very common Hungarian surname (and that Hungarian o, with or without an accent mark, is always pronounced like the o in both). The commonness holds true within the two 1930 Szelmenc villages, where 24 households were headed by a Toth.

Subcarpathian Rus'--Loose Mentions and Misunderstandings

This post is a follow-on to my reviewing of the 1930 census sheets from my grandfather's home village of Nagy Szelmenc and the adjacent village Kis Szelmenc (Czech/Slovak Veľké and Malé Slemence). About two years ago the 1930 census became available online, following a 90-year privacy period.¹ I was slow to realize that the information was available, but have now updated several WikiTree pages, including those for my grandfather's brothers and their father, and for my grandmother's sister in Csap. I'll have more to say about that 1930 census itself, including lessons learned, in a later post.

Intending to summarize some of the information, but also wanting to avoid reinventing the wheel, I searched for what other people have been doing with this 1930 census. In the process, which has included following links to descriptions of the history of the area, I've found that many play fast and loose with terms they use to label broad and narrow regions, glossing over context and time, substituting alternatives as if they were equivalent synonyms from a thesaurus. There is a lot of history, with many labels. But my concern for this post is about the early censuses from Czechoslovakia, and thus is limited to two time periods. The first period is 1921-1930, when the censuses were conducted. The second period is now and recent decades, when the information has been made available.

I found this map at wikimedia commons.

The map is from a 1921 history of Czechoslovakia. The broken line boundary through the county of Užhorod separates two parts of Czechoslovakia. On the west is the Slovakia (Slovensko) part. On the east is the Subcarpathian Rus' (Podkarpatská Rus) part. Notable on the map around the city of Užhorod is how the boundary forms a tight nearly three-quarter circle around the city. The term Subcarpathian Rus' has been reasonably applied by many people to a broader area based on their analyses of earlier reported ethnicities. But for the purpose of discussing the census records, it is the area as shown on this map, which was defined in the establishing treaties and founding documents for Czechoslovakia. As I understand, within Podkarpatská Rus there were numerous internal rearrangements of county and district boundaries between 1921 and 1930, but the western boundary of Podkarpatská Rus remained the same in 1930 as it had been in 1921.

Then there is the border today, which has not changed since 1945. When Stalin annexed Transcarpathia to the Ukrainian part of the Soviet Union, the border line was straightened and moved comfortably west of the city of Užhorod. Transcarpathia is slightly larger than Podkarpatská Rus; they are not the same area. Podkarpatská Rus is not Czech for Transcarpathia. According to Google Translate: Czech for Transcarpathia is Zakarpatí; Slovak for Transcarpathis is Zakarpatsko.

It is the position of the Slovak National Archives that census sheets from 1930 stored by them are only from present-day Slovakia.¹ Yet it is clear that the 1930 census sheets made available online by the Slovak National Education Center at their Slovakiana site include all of Slovensko as it was in 1930, which includes the far western part of today's Transcarpathia. The Slovakiana site does not include Podkarpatská Rus.¹

I don't know if the census sheets for Podkarpatská Rus were at some point transferred from Czechoslovakia to Transcarpathia, or if the Podkarpatská Rus sheets were always stored there and remained there as part of Transcarpathia. At any rate, in 2017 the Budapest Capital Archives went to the Beregszász (Berehove) section of the Transcarpathian State Archives and digitized the 1921 census sheets for Podkarpastká Rus. The digitized sheets are available online. That online collection is not a 1921 census for Transcarpathia. It is the 1921 census for Podkarpatská Rus.

Reference 1. Email responses from the Slovak National Archives archiv.sna@minv.sk and the Slovak National Education Center slovakiana@nocka.sk to questions from Jim Toth, October 2022.

Browsing a GEDCOM File

A GEDCOM file is the standard for sharing genealogical information. The version 5.5.1 specification is old, but still widely used. A GEDCOM file is generally understood to be intended for output from one computer program, then input to another computer program. But the GEDCOM file is plain text. The file's contents can be browsed that way, and that may be the only way to see all the details that were output by the generating program.

At GitHub I have a little macOS app that I use to browse GEDCOM files. Some of my GEDCOM files are very old, sent by cousins when I first got into genealogy over 20 years ago. Some of the files were created only recently, when I downloaded information from WikiTree and from Ancestry. (It is the standard, so a GEDCOM file is what you get when you download your tree from somewhere.)

Why not just use a plain-text editor for browsing? Discussion follows this screenshot of the app.

In this example the opened file is my tree downloaded from Ancestry. That tree was created by me to aid Ancestry-DNA matches in determining common ancestors. Because of that sole purpose this file contains records for only 37 individuals (35 of them my known ancestors) in 18 families. (My private GEDCOM file on my personal computer has about 1500 individuals.) A single record in a GEDCOM file generally contains multiple lines. The beginning of a new record is indicated by, among other things, a zero as the first character on a line. Though not obvious from the screenshot, the entire opened file can be scrolled from beginning to end in the view on the left. I've scrolled to the point where the beginning of the record for Ann Cavanaugh, one of my great-great-grandmothers, is displayed. Having clicked on the "Process" button, the file has been separated into records which are sorted and selectable in the four views on the right. I can easily jump from one record to another. In the list of individual records I've selected Ann Cavanaugh--much easier selecting that one record than searching for and scrolling to Ann in the original file. But what if Ann had been in a file with thousands of individuals? I would have switched temporarily to sort the list of individuals by surname.

Each record in a GEDCOM file starts with a unique cross-reference label. Ancestry has generated very long cross-references for the individual records. Ann's individual record indicates that she is a spouse in family F17. Having selected F17 in the list of families, we can see that that family record is linked back to Ann's individual record--a two-way link between individual and family record, as required by GEDCOM. My little app is oblivious to most of GEDCOM's requirements and recommendations. Basically all it does is display whatever the content happens to be for each record.

While preparing this post and reviewing the earliest version of this screenshot, I noticed that there were too many families and individuals--duplicates and even triplicates, with the extras differing in having mangled links. Here is how I think that happened. Before last December I had already enjoyed connecting with DNA-test-match cousins at other sites. Worried that I might be missing something at Ancestry, last December I took advantage of their DNA test sale. Preparing for anticipated new connections I created for the first time at Ancestry my tree, adding only my ancestors, one at a time. After that I succumbed to the allure of confirming Ancestry's hints. I think that is how the extra, mangled relationships were generated. After several iterations of deletions and repairs, my tree is back to what I originally intended. So the point is, downloading and browsing of a GEDCOM file can help find problems that are not obvious using the vendor's interface.

I prefer WikiTree. These days my genealogical research results get transferred directly to WikiTree, either by updating existing WikiTree profiles, collaboratively if possible, or sometimes by adding new profiles there. The GitHub link for my GEDCOM Browser app has a README file on its main page which contains a screenshot similar to the one on this page. In the GitHub screenshot the file is a GEDCOM that I downloaded from WikiTree. In that file I've also selected Ann Cavanaugh for illustration, so the two screenshots can be compared and contrasted. The contrasts between a WikiTree GEDCOM and an Ancestry GEDCOM illustrate that there is a great deal of flexibility in how information can be organized in a GEDCOM file. That flexibility can be a hindrance when importing a GEDCOM from somewhere else.

There is a problem with GEDCOM files generated by WikiTree that transcends whether WikiTree follows the spirit of the GEDCOM law. The problem is well explained in this Tamura Jones web page from over five years ago. WikiTree exports the entire biographical section of a profile as one long note in the individual's GEDCOM record. A large number of continuation lines are needed. WikiTree breaks a line and continues on the next line when the line length is well short of the limit specified by GEDCOM. All of that is within the letter of the GEDCOM law. The problem comes when a two-byte UTF-8 character (for example, an accented letter in a Hungarian name, or an educated quotation mark) happens to straddle the arbitrary number of bytes where WikiTree breaks the line. A malformed UTF-8 file is generated. Fortunately my Mac text editor of choice follows orders when I tell it to open the file as UTF-8, but it complains and warns me, highlighting the problem spots. So it was relatively easy to manually repair the file. I only recently experimented with downloading GEDCOM from WikiTree, and it was surprising to eventually discover that the malformed UTF-8 problem had been identified five years ago and never fixed.

My Grandparents' European Neighborhood

On my mother's side of the family tree there are paper trails going back five generations. And over the last few decades I've visited several of those maternal ancestral locations, both in the United States and in Ireland. My father's side is in some ways simpler, but in many ways much more complex. This post will be about where my paternal grandparents came from.

On that paternal side I am only two generations removed from Europe. When my grandparents left in 1905, each only age 15, their native region was then far from any international border. Today that area is the meeting point of three countries: Ukraine, Slovakia and Hungary. Eight years ago I traveled to Hungary and approached the old neighborhood, getting close to the border but staying on the Hungary side. Since then I had an urge to get closer, but did not feel comfortable about traveling in Ukraine on my own, especially to the rural villages. I eventually signed up for a tour of Ukraine. The tour operator offered an add-on, which I took advantage of. After the regular tour ended in Lviv in late October, a driver and the tour guide took me southwest to Uzhhorod in Transcarpathia, and from there to my grandparents' villages.

About five months ago, in the previous post here, I focused on the topography of the Carpathian Mountains, zooming in on the rural area which the regular tour had visited. When writing that previous post I had been intending that for this post at this point I would simply share recent pictures from western Transcarpathia. But in the meantime Russia began attacking Ukraine. We've been reminded that the four countries bordering Transcarpathia are all members of NATO. Autocratic leaders in Russia and in Hungary have amplified their nationalistic xenophobic propaganda to justify and maintain their corrupt holds on power. So it now seems impossible to show recent pictures without dwelling a bit on the history and politics of the area. I'll do the travelogue and the ruminating together, intermingled, beginning by going back to the previous post.

I'm kind of proud of how the first figure in that previous post, the unzoomed-in version, displays the broad arc of the Carpathians while at the same time highlighting small-scale drainage features. You might want to click on that image in the previous post and keep the image open in a separate window. From now on I'll call that image "the topo map." The area of the topo map was mostly beyond the influence of the Roman Empire, even at its greatest extent. As Christianity expanded, missionaries entered the area. Over several centuries they obtained mixed and limited results. Ultimately, over a period of only three decades ending in the year 1000, the Pope and his counterpart in Constantinople made individual deals with each of the rulers of three kingdoms. Each of the three kingdoms extended beyond the topo map to broader areas: Poland to the northwest, Russia to the northeast, and Hungary to the southwest. Thus the topo map is comprised of what were fringe territories of the three newly recognized kingdoms. The kingdom of Russia was headquartered at Kyiv; Moscow was then just a backwoods trading post, and remained that way for another 500 years. The part of today's Ukraine that is on the topo map (excluding Transcarpathia) first came under the yoke of Moscow's tyranny in September 1939 (see for example Timothy Snyder's Bloodlands).

As I've gotten into genealogy and DNA testing for genealogy, I realize more and more that there is a difference between ethnicity and ancestry composition. My grandparents and their relatives and friends who immigrated to America over a hundred years ago were very much ethnic Hungarian. They had grown up in the southwest part of the area that today is Ukraine's Transcarpathia. But from 1867 until the end of World War I the area that is today's Transcarpathia was in the Hungarian part of Austria-Hungary. In 1867 Austria had turned the clock back to the year 1000 by granting a great deal of autonomy to a partially restored Kingdom of Hungary. The Hungarian part of Austria-Hungary covered all of Sub-Carpathia (the inside of the arc of the Carpathians) including not just today's Transcarpathia but today's Slovakia and the northwest part of today's Romania. Enlightened Hungarian leaders of the 1870's recognized that their Kingdom was multi-ethnic and multi-cultural, and required respect for everyone. But by the time my grandparents were born, a policy of Magyarization (Hungarianization) had taken hold.

Tensions were already rising before 1918, and after 1918 many things happened in the area that is today's Transcarpathia. My grandparents never went back after 1905. A few old papers remain, financial and vital records, that document international mail exchanges into the 1920's. But after that decade contact was lost between my grandparents and the old country.

In today's Uzhhorod I saw no evidence of accomodating two languages. But in the villages closer to the border with Hungary it's clear that to this day many consider themselves ethnic Hungarian. It was fun to pretend to be trilingual, at least for the purpose of reading the place names and "Welcome To Our Community."

My grandmother was born in Chop (Чoп, Csap), and her mother was born across the river in Zahony. Eight years ago on the rental agreement I specified that I would not take the car out of Hungary. My plan had been that after parking the car in Zahony, Hungary, I would take the very short local train ride across the river and then from the train station walk the old main street of Csap. But the ticket agent at the Zahony station said that nothing was available until three days later, and I had plans to be across the country by then. This past October I finally made it to Csap. Below are views looking both directions along the street from near the corner where I think my grandmother's family lived.

It was a very quiet fall Saturday morning. The JewishGen page for Chop has map links, a historical summary and many old and new photos, including some of the Roman Catholic church which my grandmother would have attended. The current church is dated 1903 by the inscription above the main entrance. The morning sun gave a glare to the picture there; I like this one better from the side. I'm standing on the grounds of a very large building that is labeled community center, but looks like it could have once been a school.

Szürte is situated about halfway between my grandmother's Csap and my grandfather's Szelmenc. My grandfather's mother was Barbara Meszaros; we don't know anything else about her, presumably from Szürte like the other Meszaros's. Except for getting out for the picture earlier above with the west side entrance sign, my other pictures of Szürte were taken through the window of the car. I'll leave detailing Szürte itself to my Meszaros cousins.

Szürte is near the north-south main highway connecting Uzhhorod with the border crossing at Csap/Zahony. As in Csap, the buildings in Szürte appear from the outside to be well maintained. But that gets left behind when heading to my grandfather's area. Getting there requires traveling west from Szürte, and very quickly you are in the middle of nowhere. In the two pictures below, especially the first one, the Carpathian mountains can be seen on the distant horizon.

Some potholes were so large that if Russia were to bomb the road it would be hard to tell. Speaking of Moscow, visible in the second photo are the remains of a collective farm, out in the middle of nowhere. Previously the tour guide had pointed out other such remnants, but they were close to main roads, with houses around. I knew that when the Soviet Union took control of Transcarpathia after World War II resistance had been violently suppressed. For example, Greek Catholic priests had been murdered. Still it was disturbing, and remains so, to see physical remnants of that time so close to locales on my family tree. I can even see what looks like a guard tower at a prison. It's reminders like that that have Ukrainians determined to recover their territory currently occupied by Russia. The Ukrainians concern is about more than just which accent or dictionary will prevail.

The name Szelmenc is not derived from Hungarian. Instead, according to the town history a Polish Count received a grant of land from the Pope in the 1300's. The Count's name as it was converted into Hungarian became Szelmenc. (In Hungarian, the combination sz is pronounced s; an s without a z is pronounced sh. The c at the end gets a ts sound). As often happened with other villages in Hungary, over time the Count's property was developed into two adjacent settlements: Little Szelmenc and Big Szelmenc, in Hungarian Kis- and Nagy-. My grandfather's birthplace was Nagy Szelmenc, which is Veľké Slemence in today's Slovakia. Big and Little have experienced a complicated national history, together before 1945 and separate since. Between the two World Wars what is now known as Transcarpathia was a part of, an eastern extension of Czechoslovakia. With Hitler's blessing in November 1938 Hungary annexed about 15% each of today's Slovakia and today's Transcarpathia (see for example Paul Lendvai's The Hungarians). All of the annexed territory, which included both Szelmenc's, had been part of Czechoslovakia since 1919. In March 1939 Hungary annexed the other 85% of today's Transcarpathia, despite the fact that the population of that 85% area had always been predominately non-Hungarian. After World War II Hungary's border was reset to where it had been established after World War I. The Soviet Union annexed Transcarpathia, creating a new eastern border for Czechoslovakia. The new border started out from Hungary extending north-northeast. Most towns fell easily east or west of the straight line, but at Szelmenc there was a problem. A slight dogleg was inserted into the straight line to put all of Little Szelmenc in the Soviet Union and all of Big Szelmenc in Czechoslovakia. Almost 20 years ago a border crossing for pedestrians only was established between the two Szelmenc's. I could not cross there with just my USA passport. I knew that, but had thought that I would be able to see across the border. Unfortunately buildings and other structures have grown to block the view. I was told that without crossing papers I could not pass the limits of Little Szelmenc, marked by the sign in the first photo below. The entire roof of the building on my right was in even worse shape than the corner. The building behind it, with the blue wall, was signed near the top, in English, Shopping Center. In the background of the second image you can see Ukraine, and then Slovak Republic (Slovakia). Someday I'll visit Slovakia, entering with my USA passport, and then find someone to escort me to the border on the other side.

So back to there being a difference between ethnicity and ancestry composition. The genealogical DNA test companies all provide percentage "ethnicity" estimates. For example, my autosomal DNA yields estimates of roughly 47% Irish and 45% Eastern Europe, with leftover percentages for Scotland, the Baltics and about 5% Mediterranean (the specific areas bounce around from the Adriatic to Spain to The Levant). Some companies properly avoid the term ethnicity. For example 23andMe substitutes a bland but more suitable "ancestry composition." Usually when a DNA match is selected you can also see the match's "ethnicity" estimate, the reasoning being that the common ancestor must be in one of the overlapping "components." For my matches where the overlapping component is Eastern Europe, those who specify known ancestors from there are more likely to specify Ukraine, Poland or Slovakia as their ancestral location rather than Hungary. For my grandfather I specify Hungary because, I say, "That is what it was when he left there." It's no more than ethnicity. My YDNA tells an interesting story about ancestry composition. But, aside from a link to this project page, I'll save discussing YDNA for a future post.

Carpathian Topography

Ever since days as a Boy Scout I've collected topographic maps. Each new place has meant getting oriented to the lay of the land. These days satisfying that topographic itch is less about paper maps and more about digital data. I rely on elevation data downloaded several years ago from the GLOBE project.^*

As I've gotten into genealogy it's also been interesting to examine the lay of the land for places where my ancestors migrated from. The places they left in Europe are mostly flat, agricultural lands. I already knew that was the case for the immediate vicinity of the hometowns of my Hungarian grandparents. Nevertheless on good days from their small towns my grandparents would have been seeing the Carpathian Mountains on the northeast horizon.

Checking online for information about the Carpathians, I found this site, which includes a large scale topographic map presenting the Carpathians extending in an arc from northwestern Slovakia to southern Romania. I also found this site, with a topographic map restricted to the Ukrainian Carpathians. On both of those maps the contour and/or shading interval does not do justice to small features. (Additionally an annoying aspect of the Ukrainian Carpathians site is that names on the map are in Russian instead of Ukrainian.) The alternative map below similarly covers the Ukrainian Carpathians, also extending into parts of bordering countries.

Those bordering countries are: Hungary in the southwest corner; Romania east of Hungary and south of Ukraine; in the northwest corner Poland; and Slovakia between Poland and Hungary. The western letter C marks the location of my grandmother's hometown, Chop (Hungarian Csap), on the Ukraine-Hungary border. My grandfather's hometown is a short distance to the northwest, on the Slovakia-Ukraine border. I've also marked in that western part of Ukraine's Transcarpathia the locations of the cities Uzhhorod and Mukachevo.

In later multiple posts I'll return to western Transcarpathia. But in this post I'll focus on a portion of the group tour conducted by Cobblestone Freeway. Stops included Chernivtsi (the letter C on the eastern edge of the map above), the village of Tulova (T), Kosiv (K) and the mountain areas near it, and Lviv (L, on the northern edge of the map above). I-F is Ivano-Frankivsk, capital of its province. Below is a view zoomed in on the mountains near Kosiv.

Besides being the site of Ukraine's highest point, additional top-10 peaks are located in the Chornohora Range, which as the maps show forms part of the border between the provinces of Ivano-Frankivsk and Transcarpathia. The highest peaks slightly exceed 2000 m. But the GLOBE data are averaged over approximately 1 km², so the highest pixels (the darkest reds) displayed here are just over 1900 m. It's my understanding that the traditional Hutsul region extends west to that range, and wraps around it into extreme eastern Transcarpathia. But the tourist attractions, and the attention of the Cobblestone tour, are in the area closer to Kosiv, where the mountain ridges rise to just a bit above 1000 m (comparable to the Allegheny Mountains of central Pennsylvania). On the map above the letter S marks the location of the tour hotel. Each day's excursion began by heading northeast, descending along the valley until clearing the last big ridge. Then a left turn to the northwest, on a relatively straight and level road to Kosiv. Later excursions continued upstream from Kosiv to the pass at Bukovets (letter B), and from there down into the valley of the "Black" branch of the Cheremosh River, ultimately crossing that branch and then a short distance back uphill to the Museum of Hutsul Magic (HM on the map). It was only after returned from the trip and then independently researching the river that I appreciated that that branch, and other branches not visited, all drain into the valley overlooked by the tour hotel (S). Below is a view from the tour hotel looking northeast down the valley. The view is lit by the mid-October sun close to setting. The ridge on the left is the one needing to be cleared before making a left turn to Kosiv.

^* For a discussion about the free software used to create the maps shown here, see this recent post in my other blog. Here's a python detail for reading a tile, which is GLOBE's terminology for one of its data files:
import numpy as np
fptopo = np.memmap('g10g', dtype='int16', mode='r', shape=(6000,10800))

Auschwitz

Each week The Economist magazine includes a one-page story headed Graphic detail. Accompanying the story is some innovative graphical presentation of a large volume of data. For example the current issue discusses how Ranked Choice Voting might play out if it were used in this year's Democratic primary. The featured graphic, based on results from a poll that asked voters to rank the candidates, shows how votes would flow from each eliminated candidate to next choices among the remaining candidates.

Last week the Graphic Detail subject was The Holocaust. The featured graphic in that issue is a map of Europe (extending to parts of the Mediterranean coasts of Africa and Asia) showing the number of Jews killed at Auschwitz by place of origin. Small hexagonal areas (I estimate the size of a hexagonal dot to be about 20-25 km diameter) are shaded to indicate the number from that small area. The darkest shading indicates a number exceeding 1,000. It's unsurprising that urban areas like Paris or Prague stand out as darker dots against a relatively light background. But what stands out even more is that certain rural areas are densely and extensively covered by dark dots.

What that has to do with genealogy is this. On the Auschwitz origins map a dense and extensive cluster of dark dots is centered on the area where my Hungarian grandparents left from in 1905. I was already aware that deportations to Auschwitz from that area took place rapidly in late Spring and early Summer of 1944. And we know from pre-1900 gazeteers that the population of that area had been about 10% Jewish, with the percentages not varying much from larger towns to smaller villages. But it is still striking to see the numbers presented graphically. My impression is that back around 1900 what was generally true for members of other denominations in that area was especially true for Jews in that area. They thought of themselves as Hungarians. Some of the Hungarian Jews deported to Auschwitz in 1944 could have rubbed shoulders with my Catholic grandparents pre-1905.

A few points about the graphics in The Economist story. In the online version of the story the map is followed by a bar chart, with the two graphics separated by a few paragraphs of text. In the printed version the bar chart is juxtaposed with the map. The numbers are different for the two graphics. The dark shadings in the bar chart are for all Jewish deaths during the Holocaust. The shaded dots on the map are for the subset of Jews killed at Auschwitz. There is an order of magnitude difference in the two numbers for Poland. For the country labels on the bar chart and for the country borders drawn on the map, the fine print explains that the countries are defined by their pre-1938 borders. The pre-1938 Poland extended much farther east than today's Poland. The pre-1938 Hungary was basically the same as today's Hungary. Lying between pre-1938 Poland and pre-1938 Hungary (borders for those two countries are highlighted on the Auschwitz origins map) is pre-1938 Czechoslovakia. The eastern extremity of pre-1938 Czechoslovakia took in the area that today is known as Transcarpathia, in Ukraine. In late 1938 Hitler awarded Hungary the southern part of Transcarpathia, and the following March Hungary annexed the rest of Transcarpathia. Bordering pre-1938 Hungary and pre-1938 Czechoslovakia on the map is pre-1938 Romania. In 1940 Hitler awarded northwest Romania (northern Transylvania) to Hungary. The cluster of dark dots in northeast pre-1938 Hungary extends into the neighboring pre-1938 countries of Czecholovakia and Romania, perfectly matching the borders of Hungary in 1944 (map on p. 362 of Paul Lendvai, The Hungarians, Hungary between the World Wars; Hungary's frontiers after the Treaty of Trianon, 1920; Territories regained, 1938-1941).

The argument made by Hungary to its ally, Hitler's Germany, for Hungary being awarded in 1938 and 1940 parts of neighboring countries was that living in those areas were significant numbers of Hungarians. which included a significant number of Hungarian Jews, who a few years later were deported to Auschwitz by Hungarian police.

Rijeka II

Two years ago I wrote my initial impressions of Rijeka from while on a Rick Steves Best of the Adriatic tour. The tour guide did a good job of pointing out the highlights of the city through the bus windows. But the bus did not stop, and things went by very quickly. I resolved to go back some day for a closer look, and did so recently.

The (morning) view above is from Trsat, from a point a few hundred feet southeast of the castle. Overall in Rijeka there is a long hill that closely parallels the Adriatic. But at this spot a river flows through a narrow canyon. As it approaches the Adriatic the river has been channelized, creating a bit of an estuary and harbor for smaller boats.

The evening view above, looking toward Trsat, seems not to have changed much in over 100 years. The main difference: these boats have motors; in 1904 they were using sails.

Just northwest of where the channel meets the Adriatic there are larger ships docked.

In the background left is the boat-hotel, where I had a pleasant stay. In the area between the boats, on Palm Sunday afternoon they were having some sort of celebration. Before the celebration ended, loudspeakers were blaring Bohemian Rhapsody up into the hillside. A few blocks up that hill is the Maritime and History Museum of the Croatian Littoral.

The museum has a central atrium, with galleries wrapped around on two floors. Some of the gallery rooms are furnished as they would have looked around 1900, when Rijeka [then known as Fiume; Rijeka = Fiume] was governed as a Hungarian city in Austria-Hungary, and today's museum building was then the governor's mansion. But most of the rooms in the museum are dedicated to special exhibits. One of the highlights on display is a life jacket from the Titanic. The display case holding the life jacket is flanked on either side by scale models, of the Titanic itself on the right, and of the much smaller Carpathia on the left.

The Carpathia in April 1912 picked up survivors from the Titanic and took them to New York. More significant for me is that my Hungarian grandmother had embarked from Rijeka on the Carpathia on 28 October 1905. I learned from the information in the exhibit that the Cunard Line had reached agreement with Hungary to transport emigrants from Rijeka starting in October 1903. After that every two weeks one of the ships from Cunard's fleet [15 ships made for Cunard from 1900 to 1914] set sail from Rijeka [stopping at ports in Italy] to America filled with people who emigrated from Italy, Croatia and Hungary. So when my grandmother chose (or had chosen for her by whoever paid for the trip) to travel from Rijeka in 1905, that route was a relatively new option. (My grandfather, traveling that same year with his experienced uncles, took the long-established route from northeast Hungary through Hamburg.) My grandmother's younger sister, Elizabeth, followed in December 1909, also traveling aboard the Carpathia, also sailing from Rijeka. (The Carpathia served the England-New York tourist trade during the summer, returning to the Mediterranean/Adriatic emigration service during the fall, winter and spring.) There is much more about the area's long sailing history on display in the museum.

The bus station is almost all parking lot, blessed by the facade of the Capuchin Church. There is a small ticket office near the corner on the right. Buses constantly arrive from and depart for the more touristy places in Croatia. Underrated Rijeka is well worth the bus trip.